Models Of Abnormality

Abnormality is a derivative concept, since it depends on an understanding of normality. Moreover, normality describes norms of behaviour but does not prescribe what is necessarily healthy or adaptive. Models of abnormality have changed over time, from ascribing spiritual causes to disorders, to viewing abnormality as erroneous behaviour, to finally understanding abnormality as involving disorders. Abnormality can be defined and understood in statistical, cultural, and psychological terms.

Today several models are used to explain and treat abnormal functioning. At one end of the spectrum is the biological model, which sees physical processes as the key to human behavior. At the other end is the sociocultural model, which examines the effects of society and culture on individual behavior. In between are four models that focus on more psychological and personal aspects of human functioning: the psychodynamic model looks at people’s unconscious internal events and conflicts; the behavioral model emphasizes behavior and the ways in which it is learned; the cognitive model concentrates on the thinking that underlies behavior; and the humanistic-existential model stresses the role of values and choices in human functioning.

Given their different assumptions and concepts, the models are sometimes in conflict. Those who follow one perspective often scoff at the “naive” interpretations, investigations, and treatment efforts of the others. Yet none of the models is complete in itself. Each focuses mainly on one aspect of human functioning, and none can explain all aspects of abnormality.

1. The Spiritual Model
Archaeological and archival evidence indicates that abnormal behaviour has been identified throughout human history. Originally abnormal behaivour was ascribed to spiritual sources, and its treatment was related to religious practices and concepts. Thus disorders might be labeled as demonic possession and their victims beaten, ostracized, exorcized or executed.

It is believed that many of the men and women charged with and executed for witchcraft during the Middle Ages were suffering from various psychological disorders. The spiritual "model" of abnormal behaviour provided social and legal rules but no understanding of its causes or treatments.

2. The Moral Model
A moral model of abnormal of behaviour emerged gradually from the 16th century onward in Western Europe. Physical treatments were attempted (eg. bloodletting to release "bad humours"), but those with psychological disorders were segregated from those with physical disorders. A difference between the two was perceived, although no therapeutic models had yet been developed. Beginning with the work of French physician Philippe Pinel in the late 18th century and continued by American teacher and social activist Dorothea Dix in the 19th century, the moral model of abnormal behaviour advocated the view that the mentally ill needed compassion, kindness and pleasant surroundings.

3. The Medical Model
The medical model of abnormality was developed in the late 19th century with the growth of the medical specialty of psychiatry. In the medical model, disordered behaviour and thought are the symptoms or observable signs of diseases that affect the function of the nervous system. Cures and treatments are applied to the patients to alleviate their symptoms and eliminate the illness.

In the 20th century, with the development of psychotherapies independent of medical therapies, the medical model has given way to a more eclectic (varied) view of abnormality and its treatment. Nonetheless the medical model remains popular and influential today. An example of an application of the medical model can be observed when social problems like drug addiction and crime are referred to simplistically as "diseases".

4. Psychological Models
Psychological theories have led to different models of abnormal behaviour, each with its own assumptions about the causes and forms of abnormality. The psychoanalytic model explainus disordered behaviour in terms of unconscious conflicts. According to the behavioural model, abnormal behaviour is learned, just as normal behaviour is, through experiences of associations, reinforcements, and punishments. More recently, the cognitive model has argued that internal processes like expectations, biases, errors, and illusions in conscious thought result in maladjusted and disordered behaviour. Each of these models makes therapeutic recommendations on the basis of its own terms and assumptions.

5. Biological Model
This is the dominant model in our society today. This model defines abnormality as mental illness – "sick in the head" – the brain is not working in the way that it should. Mental illness can be treated in hospital with drugs and surgery. The symptoms are looked at and then an attempt at cure is made with prescriptions.

Mental illness does not show up in blood tests or x-rays, there are no bodily symptoms, it is "all in the head". There are no physical tests, which poses problems for doctors. They can only classify, diagnose and treat according to the symptoms presented.

• A neurotic is somebody who has a problem that they are aware of: "I am depressed", "I'm having strange thoughts", "I have a phobia" etc.

• A psychotic is not aware of their abnormality or illness. It may take over and the sufferer becomes detached from the world around them, as in Schizophrenia. There are two types of psychosis, Organic and Functional

- Organic psychosis is where something is wrong with the brain – either caused by a hit on the head, tumour or infection etc.
- Functional psychosis is where there appears to be no physical reason, but the person is functioning in a different way, loses contact with the world.

• A mentally retarded person has "the mind of the young", and this may be caused by anything: accident, illness, etc.
  

6. Psychodynamic Model
The psychodynamic model is the oldest and most famous of the modern psychological models. This approach believes that something happened in the past that the person is unable to deal with, and this causes the problems in the present. The memory is buried, or repressed, and has gone into the unconscious mind.

Psychodynamic theorists believe that a person’s behavior, whether normal or abnormal, is determined largely by underlying psychological forces of which he or she is not consciously aware. These internal forces are described as dynamic- that is, they interact with one another; and their interaction gives rise to behavior, thoughts, and emotions. Abnormal symptoms are viewed as the results of conflicts between these forces. Psychodynamic theorists believe that these conflicts are tied to early relationships and to traumatic experiences that occurred during childhood. Psychodynamic theories rest on the deterministic assumption that no symptom or behavior is “accidental”: all behavior is determined by past experiences.

The psychodynamic model was first formulated by the Viennese neurologist Sigmund Freud at the turn of the twentieth century. After studying hypnosis, Freud developed the theory of psychoanalysis to explain both normal and abnormal psychological functioning, and a corresponding method of treatment, a conversational approach also called psychoanalysis.

According to Freud, the Unconscious mind is 2/3 of the total mind, the conscious being 1/3. The preconscious is the small part between the two. The purpose of Psychodynamic therapy is to make the unconscious conscious.

• Ego Defence Mechanisms: The Ego puts either the desires or rules into unconsciousness to make its job easier as it cannot satisfy both. Denial and Repression are examples of Ego Defence Mechanisms.
  

• Slips of the tongue – Freudian slips: Truth sneaks out when least expected – it has not passed through sensors / filters: come straight from the unconscious.
  

• Free Association: Flowing conversation – let it go wherever it goes. The idea is that the patient may make statements they did not intend to and the therapist picks these out of the conversation for analysis.
  

• Word Association: A list of unconnected words is read and the patient says the first word that comes into their mind. E.g. "milk" might illicit the response "drink". Here the therapist is looking for "odd" associations, e.g. "father" might illicit the response "punishment".
  

• Dream Analysis: Patients keep a diary, and the therapist looks for hidden meanings or things that might be symbolic of what is happening in the unconsciousness. The diary is interpreted in the light of what is known of the patient by the therapist.
  

All these approaches are effective, but only to a very small degree.

• Projective Testing: The theory is that we project our own inner feelings onto other people and things. A good example is the famous inkblot tests. These contain no picture or hidden meaning, but Freud thought people would project their own feelings, and looked for a developing pattern when a patient was shown many of these drawings.
  

Another example of projective testing is the TAT test, which was not developed by Freud himself, but by followers of the Psychodynamic approach. An ambiguous photograph is shown to the patient, and they are then asked to "tell the story". E.g. a photograph of an old man and a young girl on a park bench: Grandfather's day out or potential dirty old man? Again, many pictures are shown and the therapist looks for a theme.

• Regression: This is where the patient is asked to re-live parts of their life and examine them in detail, including their thoughts and feelings both at the time, and now.
  

7. Behavioral Model
The behavioral model concentrates on behaviors, the responses an organism makes to its environment, which can be either internal or external. In the behavioral view, people are the sum of their learned behaviors. Therefore, behavior theorists base their explanations and treatments on principles of learning, the processes by which these behaviors change in response to the environment. The behavioral model began in laboratories where psychologists were running experiments on conditioning, simple forms of learning.

8. Humanistic-Existential Model
As humans we have the ability to pursue philosophical goals such as self-awareness, strong values, a sense of meaning in life, and freedom of choice. Humanists, the optimists of the two groups, believe that human beings are born with a tendency to be friendly, cooperative, and constructive. People, these theorists propose, are driven to self-actualize- that is, to fulfill this potential of goodness and growth. They can do so, however, only if they honestly recognize and accept their weaknesses as well as their strengths and establish satisfying personal values to live by. Existentialists agree that human beings must have an accurate awareness of themselves and live meaningful, authentic, lives in order to be psychologically well adjusted. But existentialists do not believe that people are naturally inclined to live positively, instead they believe that from birth we have total freedom, either to face up to our existence and give meaning to our lives or shrink from that responsibility.

9. Sociocultural Model
According to the sociocultural model, abnormal behavior is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that influence an individual. What are the norms of society? What roles does a person play in the social environment? What kind of family structure is the person part of? And how do other people view ad react to him or her? The model borrows concepts and principles from two fields: sociology, the study of human relationships and social groups, and anthropology, the study of human cultures and institutions.

10. Cognitive Model
In the early 1960s, Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck proposed that cognitive processes are at the center of behavior, thought, and emotions and that we can best understand abnormal functioning by looking to cognition. How do cognitive theories explain abnormal functioning? Some people may make assumptions and adopt attitudes that are disturbing and inaccurate. Illogical thinking processes are another source of abnormal functioning, according to cognitive theorists. Beck has found that some people consistently think in illogical ways and keep arriving at self-defeating conclusions. He has also identified a number of illogical thought processes regularly found in depression, such as overgeneralization.

Abnormal Behaviour

Abnormality is a subjectively defined characteristic, assigned to those with rare or dysfunctional conditions. Defining who is normal or abnormal is a contentious issue in abnormal psychology.

Many layperson's first associations with psychology are ideas about abnormal behaviour and its treatment. Ideas of abnormality have varied over time and have affected attitudes toward disordered behaviour and its treatment.

Abnormal behavior is influence by biological factors (brain processes), psychological factors (emotional turmoil), and by social factors (inadequate relationships)

Woman are diagnosed more then males because

1. Woman more likely to behave in ways that others label as mental disorders.
2. Woman are taught to express their emotions, while men are trained to control them.
3. Woman have unequal social positions and greater discrimination, more likely to experience trauma-inducing circumstances
4. Woman often placed in "double-blind" situations in society… Woman labeled as mentally disordered for either over conforming or under conforming to feminine gender role stereotypes.


Definining Abnormality
Many definitions exist but none are entirely satisfactory. "Abnormal" literally means "away from the norm". The norm is the average or typical behaviour or characteristic of the population. Thus norms are different for different populations and can change with time and conditions.

Abnormal behaviour has been defined four different ways by psychologists and social scientists: statistically, culturally, in terms of psychological adequacy, and in terms of categories of symptoms.

1. Statistical Abnormality
In terms of statistics, abnormal behaviour includes any behaviour that is significantly different from the norm. In a normal distribution of characteristics or qualities, both very high scores and very low scores are considered statistically abnormal. For example, in terms of intelligence only "average" intelligence is considered statistically normal. Significantly below-average intelligence is considered abnormal, but so is significantly above-average intelligence. Thus in the statistical sense, unusually well-adjusted behaviour might be considered abnormal, just as disordered behaviour would be.

2. Cultural Abnormality
In cultural terms, it is normal to abide by cultural norms. Cultures have norms for every social behaviour, from personal practices in sexual behaviour and child-rearing, to public actions like driving a car or choosing what to wear. The cultural definition of abnormality includes any behaviour that deviates from cultural norms. If an individual does not know how to dress in public, he or she will be considered abnormal. If an individual deliberately chooses to be a nonconformist in some way, he or she will be considered abnormal.

A problem with the cultural definition is its arbitrariness across time and cultures.l It was normal in the 18th century for American men to wear wigs and pigtails, but not so in the mid-20th century. Judging nonconformists to be abnormal because they do not abide by a dress code will lead to erroneous identifications of abnormality.

3. Psychological Inadequacy
Closer to the "true" understanding of abnormal behaviour is a definition in terms of psychological adequacy. This has taken two forms, a value-based interpretation and a practical interpretation.

Adequacy as a Value: In one sense, an individual is abnormal if his or her behaviour is not healthy. This view assumes common understanding about what "healthy" behaviour is. Insofar as these values might vary across individuals, even across professionals, this view of abnormality has the same liabilities as the cultural definition. Most people will not achieve "ideal" mental health but will still functional adequately and should not be considered abnormal.

Practical Adequacy: One's behaviour is "psychologically adequate" if he or she sets and achieves goals, is capable of independent living, and can form and sustain close relationships with others. In this view, abnormal behaviour is that which is self-defeating, out of touch with reality, socially unskilled, and personally distressed. This approach to abnormality is more practical and "common-sensical" than the foregoing.


Several conventional criteria
1. One simple thing is statistical infrequency. This has an obvious flaw — the extremely intelligent, honest, or happy are just as abnormal as their opposites. Therefore, abnormal behaviour is considered to be statistically rare as well as undesirable.

Dr Chinemezu of Aba Nigeria on (Abnormalty) The word abnormalty is The state or quality of being abnormal; variation; irregularity - Darwin Something abnormal

2. A more discerning criterion is distress. A person who is displaying a great deal of depression, anxiety, unhappiness, etc. is defined to be abnormal. Unfortunately, many people are not aware of their own mental state, and while they may benefit from help, they feel no compulsion to receive it.
3. Another criterion is morality. This presents many difficulties, because it would be impossible to agree on a single set of morals for the purposes of diagnosis.
4. One criterion commonly referenced is maladaptivity. If a person is behaving in ways counterproductive to their own well-being, it is considered maladaptive. While tighter than the above criteria, it does have some shortcomings. For example, moral behavior including dissent and abstinence may be considered maladaptive to some.
5. Abnormal behaviour violates the standards of society. When people do not follow the conventional social and moral rules of their society, the behaviour is considered abnormal. However, the magnitude of the violation and how commonly it is violated by others must be taken into consideration.
6. Another element of abnormality is that abnormal behaviour will cause social discomfort to those who witness such behaviour.
7. The standard criteria in psychology and psychiatry is that of mental illness. Determination of abnormality is based upon medical diagnosis. This is often criticized for removing control from the 'patient', and being easily manipulated by political or social goals.

A mneumonic commonly used as a reference to define abnormality SID's eFFing DIM:

• SI: Statistical Infrequency simply defines whether a behaviour is abnormal if it doesn't happen very often. There are no negative or positive overtones when using this definition of abnormality, as it covers behaviours which others don't deem 'abnormal' i.e. stamp-collectors, racing drivers.

• D's: Deviation from Social Norms defines whether a behaviour is abnormal if it is a behaviour 'outside' of society's 'circle' of what is acceptable. The main problem with this definition of abnormality is that not all behaviours that break social norms are 'wrong', and that even some social norms need to be broken i.e. women wearing traditionally men's clothes. Another problem is that there are some behaviours that individuals may do, but don't openly admit it i.e. picking their noses is a crude example that not many people would admit to.

• FF: The Failure to Function Adequately definition of abnormality defines whether or not a behaviour is abnormal if it is counterproductive to the individual. The main problem with this definition however is that psychologists cannot agree on the boundaries that define what is 'functioning' and what is 'adequately', as some behaviours that can cause 'failure to function' are not seen as bad i.e. firemen risking their lives to save people in a blazing fire.

• DIM: Deviation from Ideal Mental health defines abnormality by determining if the behaviour the individual is portraying is affecting their mental well-being. As with the Failure to Function definition, the boundaries that stipulate what 'ideal mental health' is are not properly defined, and the bigger problem with the definition is that all individuals will at some point in their life deviate from ideal mental health, but it does not mean they are abnormal i.e. someone who has lost a relative will be distressed, but would not be defined as abnormal for showing that particular behaviour.

A common approach to defining abnormality is a Multi-Criteria approach, where all definitions of abnormality are used to determine whether an individuals behaviour is abnormal i.e. if an individual is exercising a particular behaviour that is preventing them from 'functioning', breaks a social norm and is statistically infrequent then Psychologists would be prepared to define this individual as abnormal. A good example of an abnormal behaviour assessed by a multi-criteria approach is depression: it is commonly seen as a deviation from ideal mental stability, it often stops the individual from 'functioning' a normal life and some could say it is statistically infrequent.