Concepts Of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is Stimulus (S) elicits >Response (R) conditioning since the antecedent stimulus (singular) causes (elicits) the reflexive or involuntary response to occur. Classical conditioning starts with a reflex: an innate, involuntary behavior elicited or caused by an antecedent environmental event. For example, if air is blown into your eye, you blink. You have no voluntary or conscious control over whether the blink occurs or not.

The specific model for classical conditioning is:

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits > Unconditioned Response (UR): a stimulus will naturally (without learning) elicit or bring about a relexive response
2. Neutral Stimulus (NS) ---> does not elicit the response of interest: this stimulus (sometimes called an orienting stimulus as it elicits an orienting response) is a neutral stimulus since it does not elicit the Unconditioned (or reflexive) Response.
3. The Neutral/Orientiing Stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the Unconditioned/Natural Stimulus (US).
4. The NS is transformed into a Conditioned Stimulus (CS); that is, when the CS is presented by itself, it elicits or causes the CR (which is the same involuntary response as the UR; the name changes because it is elicited by a different stimulus. This is written CS elicits > CR.

In classical conditioning no new behaviors are learned. Instead, an association is developed (through pairing) between the NS and the US so that the animal / person responds to both events / stimuli (plural) in the same way; restated, after conditioning, both the US and the CS will elicit the same involuntary response (the person / animal learns to respond reflexively to a new stimulus).

Summary Of the Concepts:

1. Unconditioned Stimulus: a thing that can already elicit a response.
2. Unconditioned Response: a thing that is already elicited by a stimulus.
3. Unconditioned Relationship: an existing stimulus-response connection.
4. Conditioning Stimulus: a new stimulus we deliver the same time we give the old stimulus.
5. Conditioned Relationship: the new stimulus-response relationship we created by associating a new stimulus with an old response.

There are two key parts. First, we start with an existing relationship, Unconditioned Stimulus ---> Unconditioned Response. Second, we pair a new thing (Conditioning Stimulus) with the existing relationship, until the new thing has the power to elicit the old response.

Everyday Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning in everyday life is extremely common. In the area of classroom learning, classical conditioning primarily influences emotional behavior. Things that make us happy, sad, angry, etc. become associated with neutral stimuli that gain our attention. For example, if a particular academic subject or remembering a particular teacher produces emotional feelings in you, those emotions are probably a result of classical conditioning.


In addition, if you have pets and you feed them with canned food, what happens when you hit the can opener? Sure, the animals come running even if you are opening a can of green beans. They have associated the sound of the opener with their food.

Classical conditioning works with advertising too. For example, many beer ads prominently feature attractive young women wearing bikinis. The young women (Unconditioned Stimulus) naturally elicit a favorable, mildly aroused feeling (Unconditioned Response) in most men. The beer is simply associated with this effect. The same thing applies with the jingles and music that accompany many advertisements.

Perhaps the strongest application of classical conditioning involves emotion. Common experience and careful research both confirm that human emotion conditions very rapidly and easily. Particularly when the emotion is intensely felt or negative in direction, it will condition quickly.

Clearly, classical conditioning is a pervasive form of influence in our world. This is true because it is a natural feature of all humans and it is relatively simple and easy to accomplish.

Principles Of Classical Conditioning

Before Conditioning
In order to have classical or respondent conditioning, there must exist a stimulus that will automatically or reflexively elicit a specific response. This stimulus is called the Unconditioned Stimulus or UCS because there is no learning involved in connecting the stimulus and response. There must also be a stimulus that will not elicit this specific response, but will elicit an orienting response. This stimulus is called a Neutral Stimulus or an Orienting Stimulus.

During Conditioning
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus will first be presented, followed by the unconditioned stimulus. Over time, the learner will develop an association between these two stimuli (i.e., will learn to make a connection between the two stimuli.)

After Conditioning
After conditioning, the previously neutral or orienting stimulus will elicit the response previously only elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. The stimulus is now called a conditioned stimulus because it will now elicit a different response as a result of conditioning or learning. The response is now called a conditioned response because it is elicited by a stimulus as a result of learning. The two responses, unconditioned and conditioned, look the same, but they are elicited by different stimuli and are therefore given different labels.

Facts About Observational Learning

We learn best when we are having fun.

Observational learning, also called social learning theory, occurs when an observer's behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer's behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences--called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment-- of a model's behavior.

There are several guiding principles behind observational learning, or social learning theory:

1. The observer will imitate the model's behavior if the model possesses characteristics-- things such as talent, intelligence, power, good looks, or popularity--that the observer finds attractive or desirable.
2. The observer will react to the way the model is treated and mimic the model's behavior. When the model's behavior is rewarded, the observer is more likely to reproduce the rewarded behavior. When the model is punished, an example of vicarious punishment, the observer is less likely to reproduce the same behavior.
3. A distinction exists between an observer's "acquiring" a behavior and "performing" a behavior. Through observation, the observer can acquire the behavior without performing it. The observer may then later, in situations where there is an incentive to do so, display the behavior.
4. Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention, retention, production and motivation.
   • Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to what's happening around them. This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes or identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's expectations or level of emotional arousal.
   • Retention: Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember it at some later time. This process depends on the observer's ability to code or structure the information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model's actions.
   • Production: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of producing the act. In many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes, reproducing the model's actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one thing to carefully watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts.
   • Motivation: In general, observers will perform the act only if they have some motivation or reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process.
5. Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a model's behavior; production and motivation control the performance.
6. Human development reflects the complex interaction of the person, the person's behavior, and the environment. The relationship between these elements is called reciprocal determinism. A person's cognitive abilities, physical characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and so on influence both his or her behavior and environment. These influences are reciprocal, however. A person's behavior can affect his feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs about others. Likewise, much of what a person knows comes from environmental resources such as television, parents, and books. Environment also affects behavior: what a person observes can powerfully influence what he does. But a person's behavior also contributes to his environment.

How Observational Learning Impacts Learning:

Curriculum-- Students must get a chance to observe and model the behavior that leads to a positive reinforcement.

Instruction-- Educators must encourage collaborative learning, since much of learning happens within important social and environmental contexts.

Assessment--A learned behavior often cannot be performed unless there is the right environment for it. Educators must provide the incentive and the supportive environment for the behavior to happen. Otherwise, assessment may not be accurate.

The greater our involvement the more we learn. Little of what we passively listen to is remembered.

Learning And Behaviour

Psychologists have been interested in learning since the founding of the school of psychology called behaviourism by John B. Watson (1878-1958). The behaviourists thought that the proper subject matter for psychology was overt(observable) behaviour. They emphasized the objective, scientific study of the effect of experience on behaviour.

Learning is defined as a change in behaviour due to experience, when the behaviour change cannot be explained by instinct, maturation or temporary states of the organism. The key word in the definition of learning is experience. Instinct is excluded form the definition of learning. Instinctual behaviours are those that occur because of the inherited nature of an organism. Maturation is excluded from the definiton of learning . Matruational changes are those that develop from growth due to developmental processes. Temporary states are excluded from the definition of learning. Illness and drug-induced changes are examples of temporary states.

The history of learning theory spans most of the twentieth century. The early learning theorists worked in the behaviourist tradition. Hence, their learning research emphasized the scientific analysis of behaviour change as a result of experience. Much of the work was done in laboratories with non-human animals. In more recent times, learning theorists have applied their findings to human behaviour, and especially to the therapeutic treatment of people with psychological disorders.

The two basic(fundamental)examples of behaviour change as a result of experience are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. A third type of learning that explains human behaviour is observational learning, also known as modelling.

Emotional Intelligence

The distinction between intelligence and knowledge in the area of cognition (ie IQ) is very clear, where generally, psychological research demonstrates that IQ is a reliable measure of cognitive capacity, and is stable over time. In the area of emotion (i.e. EQ) that distinction between intelligence and knowledge is murky. Current definitions of EQ are inconsistent about what it measures: some (such as bradberry and Greaves 2005) say that EQ is dynamic, it can be learned or increased; whereas others (such as Mayers) say that EQ is stable, and cannot be increased. Mayer's (2005a) is consistent with cognition-based definitions of intelligence and knowledge, stating that " emotional intelligence is unlikely to be any more easily raised than general intelligence", but "emotional knowledge can be increased. . . fairly easily." Under Mayer's definition, emotional knowledge would be the level of perception and assessment that an individual has of their emotions at any given moment in time.

Emotional intelligence, or EI is the ability to understand your own emotions and those of people around you. EI is often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient or EQ, describes an ability, capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions of one's self, of others, and of groups.

The term "emotional intelligence" appears to have originated with Wayne Payne (1985), but was popularized by Daniel Goleman (1995). The leading research on the concept originated with Peter Salovey and John "Jack" Mayer starting in the late 1980s. In 1990, their seminal paper (199) defined the concept as an intelligence. Mayer and Salovey continue to research the concept. The term "emotional quotient" seems to have originated in an article by Keith Beasley (1987). There are numerous other assessments of emotional intelligence each advocating different models and measures.

The concept of emotional intelligence, developed by Daniel Goleman, means you have a self-awareness that enables you to recognise feelings and helps you manage your emotions.

On a personal level, it involves motivation and being able to focus on a goal rather than demanding instant gratification. A person with a high emotional intelligence is also capable of understanding the feelings of others. Culturally, they are better at handling relationships of every kind.

Just because someone is deemed 'intellectually' intelligent, it does not necessarily follow they are emotionally intelligent. Having a good memory, or good problem solving abilities, does not mean you are capable of dealing with emotions or motivating yourself.

Highly intelligent people may lack the social skills that are associated with high emotional intelligence. Savants, who show incredible intellectual abilities in narrow fields, are an extreme example of this: a mathematical genius may be unable to relate to people socially. However, high intellectual intelligence, combined with low emotional intelligence, is relatively rare and a person can be both intellectually and emotionally intelligent.

Does socialising make you clever?
Both emotional and intellectual problems are more easily resolved when in a good mood, which to some extent depends on emotional intelligence. Self-motivated students tend to do better in school exams.

The ability to interact well with others and having a good group of friends, means students are more likely to remain in education, whereas those with emotional difficulties tend to drop out.

On the negative side, low emotional intelligence can affect intellectual capabilities. Depression interferes with memory and concentration. Psychological tests show feelings of rejection can dramatically reduce IQ by about 25%. Rejection increased feelings of aggressiveness and reduced self-control.

It is this quality of self-control, rather than being impulsive, which is regarded as necessary to perform well in IQ tests. So a low emotional intelligence may limit intellectual performance.

Are You Born Brainy

Intelligence and racism
Intelligence tests have been involved in the promotion of eugenics, the idea that you could control the human race by selective breeding. Francis Galton - one of the pioneers of intelligence tests - was also a founding member of the Eugenics Society in the UK. The belief that intelligence is biologically determined in the make-up of the brain, and therefore to some extent genetically determined, is widely accepted. But a number of researchers over the years have used this idea to advocate social change. Using intelligence as one of their factors, Hernstein and Murray's controversial book, The Bell Curve (1994) argued that differences in IQ scores between racial groups reflect innate biological differences.

Critics argue that the way intelligence is measured contains a high level of random variation and therefore it's impossible to generalise it all into one graph. However, belief in the Bell Curve and in the genetic, rather than social, basis for intelligence has unfortunately led to the propagation of many racist ideas.

Evidence to suggest social factors are important in 'intelligence' is strong. The US military tested recruits to assign rank and found that black applicants scored lower than whites. However, analysis of the recruits were found to be due to educational differences; black recruits scored very low until the 1950s, when an increase in score corresponded to improved educational standards for all.

Is Intelligence Genetics?
In spring 1998, Robert Plomin claimed to have discovered a gene linked with intelligence. More recently, the Human Genome Project is cautious when approaching areas implying racial differences since research actually shows greater genetic differences within races than between races.

However, not all individuals are endowed with the same intelligence and many believe this must have something to do with our genes and the way they interact with the environment. Identical twins are more likely to obtain the same score in an IQ test than twins from two separate eggs that have a different genetic make up.

It is important to remember that genes work by interacting with the environment, so social factors will also influence intelligence. Intelligence tests may be more of an assessment of social factors, such as your educational background. Black children adopted into white middle class families score significantly higher on average than those in working class families- implying a cultural slant to tests. It is impossible to devise questions without some cultural or gender bias; boys tend to do better in spatial tests whereas girls score higher on linguistic tests.

IQ Tests

There are a number of different methods which purport to measure intelligence, the most famous of which is perhaps the IQ, or 'Intelligence Quotient' test. The 'Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale' began life in early 20th century Paris, as part of Alfred Binet’s efforts to educate children with learning difficulties. Those that obtained a score below their age were considered "retarded".

IQ is a 'psychometric' test, meaning it measures mental ability. However, defining intelligence is far from simple. There are two main schools of thought. The first believes in an inherited, genetically determined intellect that can be measured. The second group of psychologists believe in many intelligences, the development of which may be the result of our social background. They also think that measuring these intelligences is also problematic.

The modern day IQ test measures a variety of different types of ability such as verbal, mathematical, spatial, memory and reasoning. The test is then 'pre-tested' on a group of people representative of the wider population. Then it's graded so that the majority of people will be get "Bell curve".

When graphed, this is a curve in the classic 'bell' shape where most people are distributed around the average intelligence (or intelligence score) and few people are at the extreme ends of low and high intelligence.

The Bell Curve is a graph that plots the range of IQ scores of an average population. It can be interpreted in many ways, and when the intelligence of the whole human race is in question, the stakes are high.

Is IQ a good measure of intelligence? Whether IQ tests actually test general intelligence, or g, is debatable. Many see IQ tests as an assessment of an individual’s problem solving ability rather than general intelligence. However, they are not even a comprehensive test of someone's problem solving ability. Although they may assess analytical and verbal aptitude well, they aren't an accurate test of creativity, practical knowledge, and other skills involved in problem solving. So how can IQ tests be seen as a measure of intelligence? Some argue that they just show how good the individual is at IQ tests!

The importance of IQ
Because of IQ's supposed ability to objectively measure 'intelligence' they have been used by a variety of different people and institutions over the years. Many companies use IQ and psychometric tests to gauge the 'ability' of potential employees. These tests are also used in government, by the civil service, and by the Armed Forces. By using such tests, institutions and companies have bought into the idea of a 'general intelligence' underpinning our mental ability regardless of the specific skills required for the job applied for.

Recipe for intelligence
Better schooling, parenting and increased leisure time for activities are believed to have influenced improved IQ scores. Good nutrition means an individual is able to function well both physically and mentally. Although many believe this plays a role in intelligence, it is very difficult to assess. A balanced diet will provide all the foods required to maintain the correct balance of neurotransmitters.

Issues In Intelligence Testing

With the advent of intelligence testing, the theories of Thurstone and Guilford defined intelligence in terms of test performance. Thurstone conceived of primary mental abilites, while Guildford proposed a three-dimensional model of intellectual abilities. More recently Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence argues that intelligence has practical, real-world manifestations as well as consequences for test-performance.

Intelligence testing began with educational placement tests developed by Binet and Simon. Their test was later revised by Terman as the Stanford-Binet scale. Their test was later revised by Terman as the Stanford-Binet scale. The concept of IQ was introduced as more sensitive to intelligence than a mere comparison of mental with chronological age. The tests developed by Wechsler include both performance and verbal subscales. Group tests are more expedient than individual tests but not as comprehensive or detailed.

Modern intelligence testing is evaluated in terms of its cultural fairness, as well as assumptions about the heritability of IQ.

Heritability
Because intelligence, though not well-understood, is considered important in education and employment, the assumptions and uses of intelligence testing are often controversial. One issue concerns whether intelligence, as a human trait, is more a product of heredity or environment. The so-called heritability factor(inherited degree) of intelligence is of concern in determining the fair use of tests for educational and employment advancement.

Related to heritability is the question of the relation between race and intelligence. Research to date is inconclusive about the degree to which one's race or ethnicity "determines" one's possible intelligence.

Culture and Fairness
Regardless of whether intelligence is influenced by inherited traits or race, there is no doubt that culture influences what is considered to be intelligent, at least among laypersons.

One problem with traditional intelligence tests may be their reliance on verbal items and measures. If a test is written in English, a non-native speaker of English may be disadvantaged in that evaluation.

In response to the concern that intelligence tests be "culture-fair", psychologists have developed and used nonverbal measures of performance that are less affected by a particular language. Such culture-fair tests include the progressive Matrices test, the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test, and Cattell's Culture-Fair Intelligence Test.

Intelligence Testing

The first intelligence test was designed by French psychologist Alfred Binet and his colleague Theodore Simon in 1905 as a means of placing schoolchildren in the appropriate grades in public school. Since this first application to educational placement, intelligence testing has developed into a field and industry in its own right. Intelligence tests have varied in terms of their assumptions and applications.

A. Individual Tests
Most intelligence tests were originally developed to be administered to one respondent at a time, or individually.

1. The Binet-Simon Scale
Binet and Simon's original test consisted of 30 subtests involving tasks that children of different ages should be able to perform. If a child could answer the questions that the average nine-year-old could ansewer, he or she was assigned a mental age( MA) of nine.

Each child's MA, as measured by the test, was compared with his or her acutal chronological age (CA). When mental age exceeded chronological age (eg. a seven-year-old with an MA of nine) the child was classified as bright, and assigned to a higher grade level. If CA exceeded MA, the child would be assigned to a lower grade level.

2. The Intelligence Quotient
German psychologist William Stern argued that a simple comparison between MA and CA - eg. concluding that "MA > CA" - was insensitive to degrees of comparison.

Instead, Stern advocated using the ratio of MA to CA to measure intelligence. To eliminate decimal points, Stern's formula for this intelligence quotient(IQ) (since a quotient is the result of an arithmetric division) was: MA/CA x 100 = IQ. For example, a child with an MA of 9 and a CA of 6 has an IQ of 150, whereas one with an MA of 9 and a CA of 12 has an IQ of 75. When MA = CA, IQ = 100.

3. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
In 1916 (and several times since), Stanford University psychologist Lewis Terman(1877-1956) revised the original Binet-Simon scale of intelligence. Items that yielded little information were discarded, others were improved, and the resulting test, titled the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, was restandardized on new populations of children.

The most recent version of the Stanford-Binet includes four designated areas, with its own set of subtests: verbal reasoning; abstract value reasoning; quantitative reasoning; and short-term memory.

4. The Wechsler Tests
The individual intelligence test most often administered today is likely to be one developed by the late American psychologist David Wechsler.

Wechsler's scale consists of two subscales: a verbal scale, and a perfomance scale. The verbal scale includes questions and tasks involving informaation, arithmetic, and comprehension. The performance scale includes tests of picture arrangement, puzzle assembly, block design assembly, and identification of elements missing in pictures.

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) is administered to individuals over age 16, while the Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children -Revised (WISC-R) is administered to school-age children.

B. Group Tests
For the sake of expediency and time, many "intelligence" tests -- often tests of achievement or of a particular skill like verbal ability -- are designed to be administered in paper-and pencil form to many individuals simultaneously. Best known among high-school and college students are the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the American College Testing (ACT) program. Group tests are convenient and eliminate examiner bias. They are usually limited in the comprehensiveness of their results in comparison with individual tests.

Theories Of Intelligence

No single agreed-upon definition exists for intelligence, although most accept that it is a quality of the ability to acquire and use knowledge.

1. Scientific Versus Lay Definitions
The meaning of intelligence is understood differently by psychologists and lay persons. Recent research shows that most laypersons think of intelligence as comprised of verbal ability, practical problem-solving ability, and social competence (eg. being fair with others, having a social conscience).

In contrast, experts define intelligence as including verbal ability, problem-solving ability, and practical intelligence(eg. being able to size up situations well) - but not the social competence that most laypersons apparently value.

2. Spearman's General factor
At the begtinning of the 20th century British psychologist Charles Spearman theorized that there is a general factor of intelligence, g, which functions as a source of energy for varied cognitive skills and performances. Many people also excel in particular areas of skill or talent, designated s. While s may be observed independently of a high level of g, g provides a richer foundation for s in people who have both kinds of ability.

3. Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities
The American psychologist L.L. Thurstone (1887 -1955) relied on the finding so fearly intelligence testing to develop his idea of primary mental abilities. According to Thurstone, there are seven such abilities necessary for high-level test performance: spatial ability; perceptual speed; numerical ability; verbal meaning; memory; word fluency; and reasoning.

4. Guilford's Three-Dimensional Model
In 1967, J.P Guilford presented a three-dimensional model of intellect. Guilford depicted hissystem as a cube-shaped structure, divisible into many smaller cubes. The three dimensions of this cube-shaped model represented three categories of intelligence test items: the content of an item (eg. figures, meaning); the kind of operation the item required performing (eg. evaluating, remembering); and the product resulting from applying a particular operation to that content (eg. systems, transformations).

According to Guildford, there were four kinds of content, five possible operations, and six categories of products, yielding 120 identifiable intellectual abilities.

5. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
In contrast with early models of Thurstone and Guilford, recent work by Yale psychologist Robert Sternberg concludes that intelligence tests are not an appropriate source of information about the nature of intelligence. Sternberg's work has emphasized the importance of real-world problem-solving and reasoning, and encompasses a broader variety of skills than these earlier theories.

Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence describes three kinds of intelligence:

• componential - Componential intelligence involves the ability to learn, acquire new knowledge, and use it effectively.
• experiential - Experiential intelligence is illustrated by adjusting well to new tasks, using new information, and responding effectively in new situations.
• contextual - Contextual intelligent people enhance their strengths and overcome their weaknesses, and they work to achieve a good match between their skills and their settings.

In contrast with Spearman's original concept of one kind of intelligence, Sternberg argues that an individual exhibits several intelligences, which interact and are expressed in a variety of skills and abilities.

Intelligence

Defining intelligence is highly problematic. Is there an 'intelligence' that equips us to solve all kinds of problems and answer all questions, regardless of their nature? Or are there different intelligences that help us deal with particular problems and solutions? The scientific community is divided on the issue.

Intelligence is the mental capacity to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and language and learn. Although many generally regard the concept of intelligence as having a much broader scope, in some schools of psychology, the study of intelligence generally regards this trait as distinct from creativity, personality, character or wisdom.

One of the main tenet's underpinning the idea of a single entity 'intelligence' is the concept of 'General Intelligence', or 'g'. Devised by English Psychologist, Charles Spearman, in the early 20th Century 'g' was a statistical measure of performance across a variety of tests.

Spearman found that the same people who did well in a variety of mental tests tended to use a part in their brains that he termed 'g'. This 'g' laid the foundation for the notion of a single intelligence, which enables us to undertake everyday mental tasks.

A recent study seems to endorse Spearman's theory. Research has found that a part of the brain called the 'lateral prefrontal cortex' is the only area of the brain to increase in blood flow when volunteers tackle complicated puzzles.

Spearman's concept, however, is still highly controversial with many people questioning both the statistical process and the simplistic nature of 'g'. There is also a body of research that states that our mental ability is a function of social factors such as education and not one's inherent biological make-up.

Intelligence and the brain
The early Greeks thought the brain was the home of your soul, rather than your intellect. They believed that thinking happened somewhere around the lungs! Not until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was the brain seen as an organ of intelligence and thought, when the concept of the mind emerged.

Using new forms of technology, scientists have been able to look at how the brain performs when we undertake different tasks. Roll the pointer over the brain below to find out how our brain processes language.

When you use only the evidence of your five physical senses to inform you as to the nature of reality, you are building beliefs and intellectual concepts based upon the ignorance of 95% of what is really going on around you. ~ Leslie Fieger

Decision-Making

Functions Of Thinking : Decision-Making

Another function of thinking is decision-making. Many responses require making choices, often without prior experience or sufficient information to guarantee satisfaction. Decision-making strategies provide short-cuts and guidelines in such choices and crises.

1. Heuristics
A heuristic is a general solution strategy, like a rule of thumb, which often - but not always - applies and succeeds. Heuristics can take the form of familiar principles of spelling and grammar, like "i before e except after c" They can also make up more informal personal routines, like "I should brush my teeth before I sleep and when I wake up".

One kind of heuristic is called hill-climbing, in which one reevaluates the situation after taking each step closer to the goal (like looking back to see how far one has come while climbing a hill). An example of hill-climbing is the use of "process of elimination" when answering multiple-choice test items. Rule out each unlikely choice, until only the likely answer remains.

Another heuristic is to create subgoals by breaking a large goal into stages and each stage into objectives, working backwards from the ultimate goal, until one's immediate next step is clear.

Heuristics can help in decision-making by limiting the trial-and-error of undirected effort. They can also help to rationalize one's decision after the fact.


2. Framing
Decisions involve making choices among a set of alternatives. The alternatives may be presented in a biased or persuasive comparison, known as a frame. For example, consider the different impressions conveyed by these two alternatives:

Alternative A : Would you invest all your money in a new business if you had a 50% chance of succeeding brilliantly?

Alternative B : Would you invest all your money in a new business if you had a 50% chance of failing miserably?

The success-frame in A makes it seem more appealing than the failure-framed B, although the probability of success versus failure is the same for both.

Framing is sometimes used to create illusory comparisons, as when a television commerical claims that "no other brand works better". The implication of the frame is that the advertiser's brand works best, but it is just as likely that all brands work equally well (or poorly).

The possibilities of thought training are infinit, its consequences eternal, and yet few thake the pains to direct their thinking into channels that will do them good, but instead leave all to chance. ~ Marden

The Information-Processing Approach

Functions Of Thinking : The information-Processing Approach

The information-processing appproach analyzes problem-solving as a series of steps in a sequential process. Research suggests that problem-solvers pursue their tasks one strategy at a time.

1. Algorithms
One strategy for problem-solving involves using a procedure or formula guaranteed to produce a solution, known as an algorithm. For example, to calculate the area of an rectangle, multiply the length by the width. Like all formulas, this one for quadrangle area is an algorithm.

Algorithms are sure but not always expedient. For example, the algorithm for reassembling the anagram CINERAMA into another word would be to try every possible combination of letters until one makes sense. This would be a time-consuming procedure compared with the relatively quick payoff provided by the perception that the solution is the common term for a citizen of the United States.

2. Means-End Analysis
Another strategy for problem-solving is means-end analysis, a process of repeatedly comparing the present situation with the desired goal and reducing the difference between the two. This is the usual strategy for solving household problems like how to do laundry, how to prepare a meal, or how to dress a child.

Thinking is the operating skill whereby intelligence acts upon experience. ~ Edward De Bono

The Gestalt Approach

Functions Of Thinking

The Gestalt Approach to perception emphasizes the search for meaningful patterns and interpretations in collected data or elements.

1. Reorganization

Similarly, the Gestalt approach to problem-solving emphasizes the role of perception and interpretation in finding solutions. According to the Gestalt principle of reorganization, the solution to a problem depends on perceiving new relationships among its elements. Many paper-and-pencil brain-easers are easily solved only when one eliminates assumptions about how lines must be drawn or how objects should be used.

2. Productive versus Reproductive Thinking

Gestalt theory also distinguishes between productive and reproductive thinking in problem solving. Productive thinking involves producing a new orgainziation of a problem's elements, as in the insight solutions of Koehler's chimpanzees. Reproductive thinking applies past solutions to new problems. For example, having once learned to "assemble" sticks to form a rake, a caged chimpanzee might next reproduce this strategy by stacking boxes in a cage to reach a goal, when each box by itself is too short to do the job.

3. Set Effects

One problem whith reproductive thinking can be the development of a set effect, a tendency to solve new problems by applying past habits and assumptions. A set effect can prevent one from perceiving a simpler solution than the familiar, tried-and-true but more cumbersome approach.

One type of set effect is functional fixedness, a perception that elements of a problem have fixed or inflexible functions and cannot be combined in new ways. For example, if you don't have a candle holder, how else can you safely prop up a lit candle? If you have aluminum foil handy, you can mold a sheet of it into a cuplike holder for a candle. But if your functional fixedness only allows you to think of aluminum foil as a covering or a wrapping, not a moldable substance, you will fail to find this solution.

Man can live the most self-fulfilling, creative, and emotionally satisfying life by intelligently organizing and disciplining his thinking. ~ Dr Albert Ellis & Dr R. A. Harper

Functions Of Thinking II - Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is one of the most obvious functions of thinking. Several processes have been proposed to account for effective problem-solving.

Insight

During World War I, Gestalt psychologist wolfgang Koehler studied the practical problem-solving of chimpanzees. For example, a chimpanzee inside a cage reached without success for a banana out of reach just beyond the bars. There were two short hollow sticks, one thin and one thick, inside the cage, but neither was long enough to rake in the banana. Suddenly the chimpanzee seized the two sticks, assembled them by pushing the thin one partly into the thick one, and successfully used this� new long tool to retrieve the banana.

Koehler characterized the chimpanzee's problem-solving discovery as an example of insight, the perception of a problem in a new way. Insight is often described as sudden or surprising, giving rise to the exclamation "Aha!" or "Eureka1" (I've found it).

Functions Of Thinking I - Reasoning

Philosophical approaches to human thought often identified human mental "faculties" or sets of abilities.� Thomas Jefferson, for example, identified the three major human faculties as memory, imagination, and reason. He organized his personal library to represent corresponding sections (eg. history, art and science).

Reasoning relies on forms of logic, a system of rules for making correct inferences. The two best recognized types of reasoning are inductive and deductive reasoning.

1. Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning begins with specific facts or experiences and concludes with general principles. For example, one day you observe a particular bird, a bluejay, building a nest.� You might then inductively reason that all local birds have begun to build nests today. Since inductive reasoning makes inferences about an entire class based on only a few members of that class, it is an expedient but risky form of reasoning.

2. Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning begins with general principles and applies these to particular cases.� For example, you know that in spring birds begin to build nests, and that today is the first day of spring.� You might then deductively reason that a particular bird you see in your neighbourhood is commencing to build a nest somewhere. Deductive reasoning is more conservative than inductive reasoning and generally more reliable.

3. Analogical Reasoning

An analogue is a likeness in form or proportion; for example, an analogue wristwatch is equipped with a dial like a clock or sundial, while a digital watch displays digits but not a dial.

An analogy is an inference that two things or ideas that are similar in some ways share other qualities as well. Analogical reasoning involves forming a concept about somthing new based on its similarity to something familiar.

For example, in the analogy, "tines are to fork as teeth are to comb," one must first understand the relation between teeth and comb - that "teeth" are the serrations in a comb - in order to conclude that "tines" must be the word for the prongs of a fork.

Analogical reasoning takes commonplace forms as well. For example, if you turn down a friend's request to borrow your car because "the last time you borrowed something of mine you ruined it"' you are drawing an analogy between the old behaviour and the new request, and making your decision by carrying the inference forward.

Types Of Concepts

All concepts are not equally easy to learn or recognize. Researchers distinguish between conjunctive and disjunctive concepts. They also characterize some concepts as goal-derived. Finally, some cases are more typical of theirconcept categories than others.

1. Conjunctive Versus Disjunctive Concepts

Researchers distinguish between easy-to-learn conjunctive concepts and harder-to-learn disjunctive concepts.

Conjunctive concepts are categories of things or ideas that share two or more common features simultaneously. For example, if you are shopping for "diet cola", you must choose from only those products featureing both desired qualities: a low-calorie diet formula and a cola flavour. This is a relatively common and simple application of concepts in making everyday choices.

Disjunctive concepts are categories of things or ideas that share either one or the other of two specified features. For example, a dieter ordering from a restaurant menu may want to choose an item that is either vegtetarian or low-calorie. This represents a broader selection than the conjunctive concept of "vegetarian and low-calorie". The disjunctive rule includes all vegetarian items, whatever their caloric content, and all low-calorie items, whether they are vegetarian or not. Given the larger range and unobvious connection, disjunctive concepts are harder to learn.

2. Goal-Derived Concepts

One feature that might characterize a concept category is the purpose or goal of a behaviour.� For example, the following very different items all 'belong' together because they all fit in the concept category of "things necessary for writing a paper": pen, paper, typewriter, dictionary, desk lamp. Goal-derived concepts are categories of items linked by their connection to a common purpose.

Goal-derived concepts involve overlapping or intersecting other concepts. In the course of experience one learns that "pen" fits into the category of "things to write with" including pencil, crayon, and chalk, and that "dictionary" fits both the category "books" (which includes other books) and the category "small, heavy objects" (which can include rock, bottle, hammer and teapot). Thus goal-derived concepts are more complex, harder to learn and more useful than simpler concepts in solving problems and making decisions.

3. Typicality

Some concepts include a broad range of examples, not all of which clearly "belong". Typical examples of a concept better summarize the features and qualities of the concept category. A robin is a typical example of the concept "bird". A chair is a typical example of the concept "furniture". A typical examples are harder to agree on and do not as clearly "belong" in the category. A penguin is a bird, but it is not a typical bird. A wastebasket is a piece of furniture, but it is not a good example of the concept.

Concept Formation

Concepts are learned through experience. Children's first concepts are concrete, identified by sensory qualities. As we grow, we acquire more abstract or theoretical concepts by building on our earlier concrete ideas. For example, ayoung child may understand the concept of a "cow". Broadening on this concept, she may acquire the concepts of "farm" and "farm animals". A more abstract concept is "farming " and ultimately an older child will understand the concept of "agriculture", a completely abstract concept.

Children acquite concepts similarly to the way they acquire language. They apply labels and name things imitatively, like pointing and saying "dog". Through conditioning, children will generalize concepts (eg. saying "dog" for other small four-legged animals like cats and pigs) as well as discriminate between them (eg. saying "dog for animals that play with them, but saying "horse" for animals that people ride on).

Components Of Thinking

As a cognitive process, thinking bridges the gap between stimulation and response, and therefore it affects performance. Thinking is better understood through an examination of its components and applications.

Thinking involves two major kinds of components: images and concepts.

1. Images

To answer the question," What shape are a German Shepherd's ears?" it is probably not necessary to review all your knowledge or memory about dogs, ears or dogs' ears. It is most likely that you will simply picture a German Shepherd, focus on this mental image, and produce the answer : " pointed ".

Images are components of thinking in that they summarize and provide information. Specifically, an image is a mental representation of a sensory experience. Most imagery research has studied visual representations, although imagery can involve impressions of sound, taste, smell, and touch as well.

Images are useful in representing sensory details. They can also be used to menatlly "arrange" teh parts of a problem or pupzzle. For example, in solving the riddle, "John is not as smart as Sue, but is smarter than Lee; who is smartest?" one may visualize a spatial ordering of John, Sue,and Lee along a "smartness" scale to produce the correct answer.

Individual differences have been discovered in ability to use imagery and in the vividness of imagery produced. Children may experience more accurate or vivid imagery than adults, who have learned to rely more on the propositional thinking of ideas and concept relationships.

2. Concepts

All thinking requires concepts, mental representations of categories of experiences according to common features. The concept of "apple" for example, is really a category of many different examples, since real apples can be red, yellow or green , sweet or sour, on a tree, in a basket of fruit or sliced and baked into a pie. The "common features" of all apples have to do with hard-to-describe qualities of taste and texture, origin and form. The concept of "fruit" is a broader category, since it includes the concept of "apple" as well as many other, quite different concepts.

Thinking

Thinking can be approached in terms of both its nature - types of thinking� - and its forms and functions.

Thinking can be broadly distinguished into two kinds of processes, convergent thinking and divergent thinking.

Types of Thinking

1. Convergent Thinking

Convergent thinking is focused, deliberate, directed thinking.� It is the kind of thinking we undertake in order to recall an elusive idea, solve a problem or make a choicke.� The term "convergent" implies that, although we may approach an issue from many different directions, eventually all these approaches "converge" - come together� - on same final solution or response.

2. Divergent Thinking

Divergent Thinking characterizes the undirected thinking of daydreaming and creativity.� The term "divergent" implies that, from one starting point, subsequent thought processes may continue in different directions and culminate in different conclusions.

a. Daydreaming - Daydreaming, a form of conscious fantasizing, is considered by some researchers to be an altered state of consciousness.� Daydreaming can be a form of escape, and daydreams may involve imagining alternate circumstances when we would rather be elsewhere.� Individual differences have been found in the affect (pleasant or unpleasant) and vividness of daydreams.

b. Creativity - Creativity is the ability to produce novel and unique ideas.� Creative problem-solving relies on divergent rather than convergent thinking.� For example, creativity is demonstrated by coming up with many different uses for a simple object, like a brick or a toothpick.� There is little clear relationship between creativity and performance on most intelligence tests.� Formal education may inadvertently discourage creativity by emphasizing convergent thinking in traditional curriculum.

Thinking And Intelligence

The information-processing approach to psychology characterizes human behaviour as meaning-oriented. Early psychophysicists proposed an unconscious process from stimuli to response. This sequence can be summarized as S --> O --> R. In this conceptualization, S represents the stimuli or environmental changes that impinge on the sensory systems; O represents the organism and its internal sensory and perceptual processes; and R symbolizes the responses the organism makes as a consequence of stimulation.

Under the influence of behaviourism in the early 20th century, psychologists abandoned research into "O" (organismic) processes in favour of the directly observable "S" (stimuli) and R (responses). For this reason behaviourism came to be known as S-R psychology, emphasizing only the observable associations between these two processes without inferring the nature of the connection.

With the development in recent decades of artificial intelligence (systems and computers that process information), the new fiield of cognitive psychology as emerged and revitalized interest in unobservable organismic variables. The information-processing approach, one perspective of cognitive psychology, suggests that these "O" processes are a valid and appropriate subject for scientific reasearch. Included among these are coginitive processes like perceiving, recognizing , thinking , imagining, and remembering . Many cognitive processes also take the form of "R" behaviours, influencing responses like problem-solving, decision-makig, and language.

An understanding of thinking is essential to comprehending cognitive processes. The effectiveness of thinking contributes to intelligence, a qulaity considered central to most aspects of human performance.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is an important issue in education today

The movement to the information age has focused attention on good thinking as an important element of life success (Huitt, 1993; Thomas & Smoot, 1994). These changing conditions require new outcomes, such as critical thinking, to be included as a focus of schooling. Old standards of simply being able to score well on a standardized test of basic skills, though still appropriate, cannot be the sole means by which we judge the academic success or failure of our students.

The purpose of this brief overview is to review what we know about critical thinking, how it might be differentiated from creative thinking, and to suggest future research and implementation activities

Definition has changed over the past decade

The definition of critical thinking has changed somewhat over the past decade. Originally the dominion of cognitive psychologists and philosophers, behaviorally-oriented psychologists and content specialists have recently joined the discussion. The following are some examples of attempts to define critical thinking:

• ...the ability to analyze facts, generate and organize ideas, defend opinions, make comparisons, draw inferences, evaluate arguments and solve problems (Chance,1986, p. 6);
• ...a way of reasoning that demands adequate support for one's beliefs and an unwillingness to be persuaded unless support is forthcoming (Tama, 1989, p. 64);
• ...involving analytical thinking for the purpose of evaluating what is read (Hickey, 1990, p. 175);
• ...a conscious and deliberate process which is used to interpret or evaluate information and experiences with a set of reflective attitudes and abilities that guide thoughtful beliefs and actions (Mertes,1991, p.24);
• ...active, systematic process of understanding and evaluating arguments. An argument provides an assertion about the properties of some object or the relationship between two or more objects and evidence to support or refute the assertion. Critical thinkers acknowledge that there is no single correct way to understand and evaluate arguments and that all attempts are not necessarily successful (Mayer & Goodchild, 1990, p. 4);
• ...the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action (Scriven & Paul, 1992);
• reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do (Ennis, 1992).

Contributions to our thinking about critical thinking

Each of the separate groups has made significant contributions to our understanding of critical thinking. Contributors from the area of cognitive psychology (such as Paul Chance and Richard Mayer) delineate the set of operations and procedures involved in critical thinking. They work to establish the differences between critical thinking and other important aspects of thinking such as creative thinking.

Contributors from the area of philosophy (such as Richard Paul) remind us that critical thinking is a process of thinking to a standard. Simply being involved in the process of critical thinking is not enough; it must be done well and should guide the establishment of our beliefs and impact our behavior or action.

Contributors from the area of behavioural psychology help to establish the operational definitions associated with critical thinking. They work to define the subtasks associated with final outcomes and the methodologies teachers can use to shape initial behaviors towards the final outcomes. They also demonstrate how educators can establish the proper contingencies to change behavior.

Content specialists (such as Hickey and Mertes) demonstrate how critical thinking can be taught in different content areas such as reading, literature, social studies, mathematics, and science. This is an especially important contribution because it appears that critical thinking is best developed as students grapple with specific content rather than taught exclusively as a separate set of skills.

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Forgetting

You can't talk about remembering without mentioning its counterpart. It seems that as much as we do remember, we forget even more. Forgetting isn't really all that bad, and is in actuality, a pretty natural phenomenon. Imagine if you remembered every minute detail of every minute or every hour, of every day during your entire life, no matter how good, bad, or insignificant. Now imagine trying to sift through it all for the important stuff like where you left your keys.

There are many reasons we forget things and often these reasons overlap. Some information never makes it to LTM(Long Term Memory). Other times, the information gets there, but is lost before it can attach itself to our LTM. Other reasons include decay, which means that information that is not used for an extended period of time decays or fades away over time. It is possible that we are physiologically preprogrammed to eventually erase data that no longer appears pertinent to us.

Failing to remember something doesn't mean the information is gone forever though. Sometimes the information is there but for various reasons we can�t access it. This could be caused by distractions going on around us or possibly due to an error of association (e.g., believing something about the data which is not correct causing you to attempt to retrieve information that is not there). There is also the phenomenon of repression, which means that we purposefully (albeit subconsciously) push a memory out of reach because we do not want to remember the associated feelings. This is often sited in cases where adults 'forget' incidences of sexual abuse when they were children. And finally, amnesia, which can be psychological or physiological in origin.

Memory

Human memory, like memory in a computer, allows us to store information for later use. In order to do this, however, both the computer and we need to master three processes involved in memory. The first is called encoding; the process we use to transform information so that it can be stores. For a computer this means transferring data into 1�s and 0�s. For us, it means transforming the data into a meaningful form such as an association with an existing memory, an image, or a sound.

Next is the actual storage, which simply means holding onto the information. For this to take place, the computer must physically write the 1� and 0�s onto the hard drive. It is very similar for us because it means that a physiological change must occur for the memory to be stored. The final process is called retrieval, which is bringing the memory out of storage and reversing the process of encoding. In other words, return the information to a form similar to what we stored.

The major difference between humans and computers in terms of memory has to do with how the information is stored. For the most part, computers have only two types; permanent storage and permanent deletion. Humans, on the other hand are more complex in that we have three distinct memory storage capabilities (not including permanent deletion). The first is Sensory memory, referring to the information we receive through the senses. This memory is very brief lasting only as much as a few seconds.

Short Term Memory (STM) takes over when the information in our sensory memory is transferred to our consciousness or our awareness. This is the information that is currently active such as reading this page, talking to a friend, or writing a paper. Short term memory can definitely last longer than sensory memory (up to 30 seconds or so), but it still has a very limited capacity. According to research, we can remember approximately 5 to 9 (7 +/- 2) bits of information in our short term memory at any given time.

If STM lasts only up to 30 seconds, how do we ever get any work done? Wouldn't we start to lose focus or concentrate about twice every minute? This argument prompted researchers to look at a second phase of STM that is now referred to as Working Memory. Working Memory is the process that takes place when we continually focus on material for longer than STM alone will allow.

What happens when our short term memory is full and another bit of information enters? Displacement means that the new information will push out part of the old information. Suddenly some one says the area code for that phone number and almost instantly you forget the last two digits of the number. We can further sharpen our short term memory skills, however, by mastering chunking and using rehearsal (which allows us to visualize, hear, say, or even see the information repeatedly and through different senses).

Finally, there is long term memory(LTM), which is most similar to the permanent storage of a computer. Unlike the other two types, LTM is relatively permanent and practically unlimited in terms of its storage capacity. Its been argued that we have enough space in our LTM to memorize every phone number in the U.S. and still function normally in terms of remembering what we do now. Obviously we don�t use even a fraction of this storage space.

There are several subcategories of LTM. First, memories for facts, life events, and information about our environment are stored in declarative memory. This includes semantic memory factual knowledge like the meaning of words, concepts, and our ability to do math and episodic memory memories for events and situations. The second subcategory is often not thought of as memory because it refers to internal, rather than external information. When you brush your teeth, write your name, or scratch your eye, you do this with ease because you previously stored these movements and can recall them with ease. This is referred to as nondeclarative (or implicit) memory. These are memories we have stored due to extensive practice, conditioning, or habits.

Why We Can Remember

Why We Remember What We Remember

A. Short Term Memory

There are typically six reasons why information is stored in our short term memory.

1. Primary Effect - information that occurs first is typically remembered better than information occurring later. When given a list of words or numbers, the first word or number is usually remembered due to rehearsing this more than other information.

2. Recency Effect - often the last bit of information is remembered better because not as much time has past; time which results in forgetting.

3.Distinctiveness - if something stands out from information around it, it is often remembered better. Any distinctive information is easier to remember than that which is similar, usual, or mundane.

4.Frequency effect - rehearsal results in better memory. Remember trying to memorize a formula for your math class. The more you went over it, the better you knew it.

5.Associations - when we associate or attach information to other information it becomes easier to remember. Many of us use this strategy in our professions and everyday life in the form of acronyms.

6.Reconstruction - sometimes we actually fill in the blanks in our memory. In other words, when trying to get a complete picture in our minds, we will make up the missing parts, often without any realization that this is occurring.

B. Long Term Memory

Information that passes from our short term to our long term memory is typically that which has some significance attached to it. Imagine how difficult it would be to forget the day you graduated, or your first kiss. Now think about how easy it is to forget information that has no significance; the color of the car you parked next to at the store or what shirt you wore last Thursday. When we process information, we attach significance to it and information deemed important is transferred to our long term memory There are other reasons information is transferred. As we all know, sometimes our brains seem full of insignificant facts. Repetition plays a role in this, as we tend to remember things more the more they are rehearsed. Other times, information is transferred because it is somehow attached to something significant. You may remember that it was a warm day when you bought your first car. The temperature really plays no important role, but is attached to the memory of buying your first car.

Smells and Memory

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Nostalgic smells

Nearly everyone has experienced a moment when a faint fragrance brings a memory of a long-lost moment in time crashing back to the forefront of their minds.

Often we will have forgotten about the event completely, yet it transpires our unfathomable minds have filed it neatly in some unreachable corner of the brain, primed for instant retrieval.

Pungent memories

It may be the perfume worn by a long-forgotten friend, the stench of petrol from a youth spent worshipping motorcycles or the haze of chlorine from summer months lazing by the pool.

It is amazing that a few simple airborne molecules can trigger such vivid recollections.

Dr Alan Hirsch is a US neurologist who specialises in the treatment of people who lose their sense of smell or taste.

Total recall

But at the Smell and Taste Treatment and Research Foundation, which Hirsch runs, he is carrying out research into immediate recall of childhood memories by a particular odour, a phenomenon he refers to as olfactory-evoked recall.

Hirsch believes that the details evoked by nostalgic smells are not as important as the emotions they recall. But our minds reshape these memories, sending them through a rose-tinted filter that redefines them as "good times".

Experiences that may have seemed bad at the time can be reconstructed in our minds to seem better than they were, because they represent periods in our life that are now gone forever.

Idealised childhood

Childhood memories, for example, represent times when we were free from the responsibilities and anxieties of adulthood, so we may redefine them in an idealised way, even though many of the experiences we went through were difficult at the time.

In order to study the different odours that evoked nostalgia amongst the public, Hirsch and his staff canvassed around 1,000 people on the streets of Chicago and asked them which smells stimulated a childhood memory.

Baked cakes

The results were interesting. Baked foods such as cakes and baking bread made up the largest category of nostalgic smells. Other cooking smells such as bacon, meatballs and spaghetti were the second largest category of reported smells.

But people born before 1930 tend to recall the odours associated with nature more than people born in later decades. This may reflect increasing urbanisation after the 30s.

Brain wiring

What is not in doubt is that smell is a powerful sense. The olfactory system, the apparatus responsible for our sense of smell, has a pathway in the brain closely associated with the limbic system. The limbic system contains the amygdala and the hippocampus parts of the brain which are closely associated with emotion and memory respectively.

Human beings tend to emphasise vision over all other senses, but our sense of smell is important enough to evoke its own form of d�j� vu. Perhaps the foul and strange smells we experience today will be associated with fond memories in years to come.